Introduction

Mantodea, the praying mantises, rank among the most recognisable insects on Earth. Their distinctive “praying” posture — forelegs folded beneath the prothorax, head swivelling to track movement — has made them cultural icons and perennial favourites among nature enthusiasts. The order comprises approximately 2,500 described species in 15 families, ranging from tiny bark-dwelling species barely 10 mm long to spectacular flower mimics exceeding 170 mm.

Mantises are obligate predators at every life stage. Their raptorial forelegs — armed with rows of spines and capable of striking in under 100 milliseconds — represent one of the most refined prey-capture mechanisms in the insect world. Combined with binocular vision provided by widely spaced compound eyes on a freely rotating triangular head, mantises are formidable ambush predators. Their appetite for pest insects has led to widespread use as biological control agents in gardens and agriculture.

For a complete diagnostic guide to all insect orders, see Insecta Guide.

Systematic Position and Classification

Mantodea belong to the superorder Polyneoptera and are placed within the superordinal group Dictyoptera alongside their sister order Blattodea (cockroaches and termites). The two orders share the production of oothecae (hardened egg cases), and molecular phylogenies consistently recover them as sister taxa. Mantises diverged from cockroach ancestors, evolving raptorial forelegs and an elongated pronotum as adaptations for an active predatory lifestyle.

Fossil record

The oldest definitive mantodean fossils date to approximately 140 million years ago (Early Cretaceous). Cretaceous amber from Myanmar and Lebanon has yielded well-preserved specimens showing that the raptorial foreleg complex was already fully developed. The major diversification of modern mantis families appears to have occurred during the Late Cretaceous and Palaeogene, paralleling the radiation of their prey insects.

Morphology

Head and mouthparts

The head is triangular and highly mobile, articulating on a narrow neck that allows nearly 180° rotation — unique among insects and essential for visually tracking prey. Large compound eyes provide wide-field binocular vision, enabling accurate distance estimation during strikes. Three ocelli are present. Mouthparts are mandibulate and robust, designed for shearing the tough exoskeletons of prey. The antennae are filiform with approximately 30 segments.

Thorax and legs

The pronotum is markedly elongated — often 2–3 times longer than the meso- or metathorax — giving mantises their characteristic upright silhouette. The forelegs are raptorial: the femur and tibia bear rows of opposing spines and fold together in a “jackknife” mechanism for seizing prey. The mid and hind legs are ambulatory with a 5-5-5 tarsal formula. The mesothorax is enlarged, supporting the primary flight musculature.

Wings

When present, the forewings are modified as tegmina — leathery, protective covers — while the hindwings are broad, membranous, and fan-folded at rest. Wings are held flat over the abdomen. Wing reduction or loss has occurred in several lineages, particularly in ground-dwelling and bark-dwelling species. Many females are brachypterous (short-winged) while males retain full flight capability. There is no wing-coupling mechanism.

Abdomen

The abdomen has 10 visible segments and bears short, multi-segmented cerci. Females possess a long ovipositor used to deposit eggs into a frothy ootheca — a hardened, spongy egg case that protects the developing embryos from desiccation and predation. The ootheca is a shared character with Blattodea and a key Dictyoptera synapomorphy.

Biogeography

Mantodea are predominantly tropical and subtropical. The greatest species richness occurs in the Afrotropical and Oriental regions, where spectacular flower-mimicking and leaf-mimicking forms have evolved. Temperate representatives are fewer and largely confined to warm, arid, or Mediterranean-type habitats. In Europe, Mantis religiosa is the most familiar species and has been introduced to North America, where it has established naturalised populations across the eastern seaboard.

Ecology and Life History

Feeding biology

Mantises are generalist predators, consuming any arthropod they can overpower — and sometimes small vertebrates such as lizards, frogs, and hummingbirds. Both adults and nymphs are predatory. Prey is detected visually, stalked or ambush-waited, and captured with an explosive foreleg strike that can be completed in as little as 50–70 milliseconds. Some species specialise in particular prey types: Hymenopus coronatus (orchid mantis) mimics flowers to lure pollinating insects.

Activity and behaviour

Most mantises are diurnal sit-and-wait predators, relying on crypsis to avoid detection by both prey and their own predators. Many species exhibit remarkable camouflage, mimicking leaves, bark, flowers, or lichens. Sexual cannibalism — in which the female consumes the male during or after mating — occurs in some species but is not universal. Males of many species are strong, agile fliers, while females are often more sedentary.

Life cycle

Mantodea are hemimetabolous. Nymphs hatch from the ootheca as miniature replicas of adults and develop through multiple instars (typically 6–9). The life cycle spans several months to over a year depending on climate. Voltinism is variable, with temperate species typically univoltine and tropical species potentially multivoltine. Overwintering generally occurs as adults or within oothecae.

Applied Significance

Praying mantises are valued as biological control agents, particularly in organic gardening and integrated pest management. Species such as Tenodera sinensis (Chinese mantis) are commercially sold as egg cases for garden release. However, their effectiveness as pest controllers is limited by their generalist feeding habits — they consume beneficial insects as readily as pests. Mantises have no medical significance. In popular culture, they feature prominently in martial arts traditions, art, and as popular pets in the exotic invertebrate trade.

Diagnostics and Identification

Mantodea are uniquely characterised by the combination of raptorial forelegs with spined femur and tibia held in a folded-knife posture, a highly mobile triangular head with forward-facing binocular compound eyes, and a markedly elongated pronotum. Wings, when present, comprise leathery tegmina over fan-folded membranous hindwings. Short multi-segmented cerci, an ootheca egg case, and hemimetabolous development complete the diagnostic profile.

Distinction from related taxa

Phasmatodea (stick insects) share an elongated body form but lack raptorial forelegs and have a non-mobile head without binocular forward vision — they are herbivores, not predators. Mantispids (family Mantispidae within Neuroptera) have convergently evolved raptorial forelegs but are holometabolous with four membranous wings and lack the elongated pronotum. Some Orthoptera superficially resemble mantids but lack the raptorial foreleg complex.

Notable and Iconic Species

Related Taxa

References

• Schwarz CJ, Roy R (2019) The systematics of Mantodea revisited: an updated classification incorporating multiple data sources. Annales de la Société Entomologique de France (N.S.) 55: 101–196.
• Grimaldi D, Engel MS (2005) Evolution of the Insects. Cambridge University Press, 755 pp.
• Beutel RG, Friedrich F, Ge SQ, Yang XK (2014) Insect Morphology and Phylogeny. De Gruyter, 516 pp.
• Wieland F (2013) The phylogenetic system of Mantodea (Insecta: Dictyoptera). Species, Phylogeny and Evolution 3: 3–222.
• Rivera J, Svenson GJ (2020) The Neotropical mantises: diversity, systematics, and evolution. In: Prete FR (Ed), The Praying Mantises. Johns Hopkins University Press, 340–391.

Frequently Asked Questions